Description of Nicaraguan Photo

Roosevelt Campbell Professor Finnegan English 111 (009) 7 October 2012 The death of the young man in the Nicaraguan war The photograph by Koen Wessing, â€Å"Nicaragua† (1970) shows a group of people around a dead body on a torn up street in a tragic scene. In the foreground, lies a dead young man on a bumpy road covered with a white sheet, looks like an army boot on one foot sticking out. In the foreground, at the head of the body blood stains are noticeable. A woman who seems to be the young man’s mother walks right up to the body, holding up a sheet to her mouth, and starts to shed tears.In the background four people stand in the street, who appear to be family members or friends of the deceased. A man, who seems to be the boy’s father or uncle, walks behind the body towards the mother. He does not confront or look at the body, with his head down and his hands together in front of him at his waist as a sign of grief. Behind the man, a friend of the family star es at the body with a handkerchief to her nose, protecting her from the stench. Alongside her is a family member who is partially hidden by the man.Only a little part of her hair, arms and legs are visible. A family member also stares at the body with a sheet wrapped across her arm. I also notice that behind these people is graffiti on the door of a building which says â€Å"FSLN† which stands for Frente Sandinista de Liberacion Nacional (Spanish). In English, this means Sandinista National Liberation Front which is a social democratic party in Nicaragua. On that same building I can see holes on a building behind the group of people maybe they are bullet holes, from the gun when they fired at the young man.Look like there is even a spent shell to the left of the head of the body. In this photo by Koen Wessing, it indicates how the family members and friends have been affected by the death of the young man, not only them but how the country as a whole has been deeply affected with the deaths and destructions which have been taking place in the country, seemed to have been caused by a war. Koen Wessing portrays how war destroys families and the struggle that people in this scene and the whole country has to go through.When looking at the young man’s mother, family members and friends, you can see by their facial expression and body language that they’re broken down mentally by the death of the young man, which deeply affects them. This can cause problems such as depression and anger. This can even continue to affect them later on in the future. To my assumption he may have been brutally murdered by Somoza’s National Guard (opposition to the Sandinistas), because of his affiliation with the Sandinistas, and he may not have been the only innocent person to be killed by them, so there would have been other families affected by this turmoil.This war has not only affected the people but the country’s infrastructure as well such as t he roads and buildings that were demolished. Homes might have also been wrecked leaving people homeless which might cause them and their children to be sleeping without a roof over their head which is not healthy. Some businesses may have been shut down, and with no businesses, people would be out of jobs and as a result of this, they wouldnot being able to provide for their family. Schools also might have been closed and this would have deeply affected the educational progress of the students and affect them in the future.In conclusion, this photo clearly states the suffering the people and the country as a whole had to go through, and how the dead are left to remind the people of fear and sadness. This image illustrates the devastating effect that a war can have on the people and its country. Koen Wessing is telling us that a war can cause a lot of problems in a country and it would be very difficult to reestablish all the aspects which have been affected. Works Cited Koen, Wessin g. Nicaragua. 1970. Photograph. English 111 Course Page. Web.

The Epic of Gilgamesh: Values, & Serpents vs. Bible

The True Value of Life Sometimes, in order for you to change, it takes losing something so dear to you. This is proven in one of the oldest stories ever written, â€Å"The Epic of Gilgamesh†. Although the main plot is focused on Gilgamesh losing is closest friend and going on a journey of immortality, by studying Gilgamesh’s idea of avoiding death, we can see throughout the story that death is inevitable, lack of humility is an issue, and the symbol of the serpent. Gilgamesh, the king of Uruk, is a mighty king that built magnificent temple towers and high walls that surrounded the city.However, he came about these building projects by forced labor. The gods heard the people of Uruk’s pleas, so the gods created Enkidu, who is just as magnificent as Gilgamesh, to challenge him. The gods’ plan took a different turn when the two became best of friends. Gilgamesh’s happy adventurous life soon takes a tragic turn when Enkidu falls ill and dies. Gilgamesh now fears for his own life. Heartbroken, Gilgamesh sets out on a journey to find the key to eternal life. His journey leads him to Utnapishtim, who he and his family’s lives were spared by Ea, the god of wisdom, from the flood.As a result of this, Enlil, the god of earth, rewards Utnapishtim with eternal life. Gilgamesh assumes Utnapishtim can grant him eternal life as well, so he puts him to a test. Gilgamesh has to stay awake for a week; this is a trick because immortals don’t ever sleep. Gilgamesh immediately fails. As a second chance Utnapishtim gives him a plant of youth. On his journey back home a snake steals the plant while Gilgamesh is in the pond. Gilgamesh returns to Uruk empty handed; however, he returns as a different man. The greatest lesson Gilgamesh learns is that death is inescapable.Siduri, the goddess of wine disguised as the tavern keeper, warns him of seeking immortality. â€Å"As for you, Gilgamesh, let your belly be full, make merry day and nigh t. Of each day make a feast of rejoicing. Day and night dance and play! Let your garments be sparkling fresh, your head be washed; bathe in water. Pay heed to a little one that holds on to your hand, let a spouse delight in your bosom† (Tablet X). This is her telling him it would be pointless and to just enjoy what he has in his life now. It was Enkidu’s fate to die as a consequence after him and Gilgamesh killed the Bull of Heaven.Gilgamesh realizes in the end that it is also man’s fate to die, as it is for humankind to live on. Death is inevitable and immortality is promised only to the gods. Life must be treasured. Life isn’t worth living if you don’t take what is has to offer, for death will come faster than you know. Gilgamesh may have started his quest as two-thirds god and one-third man, but he returned as a man, realizing his own inevitable mortality. From being two-thirds god and one-third man, Gilgamesh is destined for perfection. He is bl essed with the luxurious life and all the riches he could possibly want.Unfortunately his greatest flaw is his arrogance and lack of humility. Gilgamesh was created by the gods to be perfect in every way. However, the gods couldn’t prepare him for life, its challenges, and how to be a true king. Gilgamesh lived like a god amongst his people and was hated for it because he didn’t care about anyone but himself. The gods didn’t know what to do with Gilgamesh’s life so they sent Enkidu which gave him true friendship. Gilgamesh started in the story as a cruel king that used forced labor to build his kingdom and would rape women.He would do whatever he wanted to do and get who and whatever he wanted. He was loathed by his people. The first transition to his change was Enkidu. They both became heroes. When his journey ends he returns to his kingdom as a new selfless man who thinks no more than do right by his people. Serpents play similar but at the same time di fferent roles in Gilgamesh and the Bible. In the story of Gilgamesh the serpent changes Gilgamesh’s perception of life. After his long quest he is given an herb that restores his youth. He hasn’t yet used it when a snake steals it.Though the snake robs Gilgamesh of his chance to enjoy youth again, it restores Gilgamesh’s sanity. The snake is a benefit. Gilgamesh now carries back the gift of wisdom. He now focuses on what is in front of him and doesn’t take life for granted. In the Bible, the serpent is a source of evil that brought life-long punishment to humankind. The serpent tempts Adam and Eve to disobeying God into taking what rightfully belongs to God – knowledge. As punishment, God exiles Adam and Eve from the Garden of Eden and brands them as sinners.The serpent stole their innocence, so in a way the serpent brought both death and knowledge into the world. As descendent of Adam and Eve we also hold the name as a sinner. â€Å"This is the w all of Uruk, which no city on earth can equal. See how its ramparts gleam like copper in the sun. Climb the stone staircase, more ancient than the mind can imagine a temple that no king has equaled in size or beauty, walk on the wall of Uruk, follow its course around the city, inspect its mighty foundations examine its brickwork, how masterfully it is built, observe the land it encloses† (Book XI).Shortly before Gilgamesh’s eyes truly opened he was in despair because he lost his opportunity of immortality when he lost the plant of youth. In the end as he looked upon his kingdom he established wisdom. He realized that death cannot be avoided, and he became a humble king. If it wasn’t for the serpent he would still be the arrogant king he was and he wouldn’t have gain this knowledge. If the serpent didn’t bring along the idea of eating off the tree of knowledge, Adam and Eve would still be in the Garden of Eden and wouldn’t have the knowledge o f the world.

Anyone Can Be A Monster

Anyone Can Be A Monster Primo Levi, an Italian Jewish chemist, writer, and Holocaust survivor, once said that Monsters exist, but they are far too few in number to be truly dangerous. More dangerous are the common men, the functionaries ready to believe and to act without asking questions. When people think of evil people or monsters, we typically think of the main figure of a movement or group. The most evil person people think of is Hitler or Stalin. It is easy to blame the main figure solely, but by doing this we fail to remember the ordinary people who are involved in letting horrendous acts occur. These people did not work alone. It is everyday people who have the power to control what will happen. It is through civilian opinions and actions that evil acts can occur. Hitler had millions of followers and supporters that did not question what he was doing to Jews. They and many other countries failed to realize by following blindly without questioning, they were condemning a group of people to death. Mon sters do not have to be a completely evil being. Many people do not realize that all monsters are just ordinary people. In her short story, The Lottery, Shirley Jackson is able to express the chilling horror of blind obedience. Jackson is able to show that any ordinary person is capable of horrific acts by conforming mindlessly to a persons surroundings. Although people are have the ability to cause change and do good, Shirley Jackson is able to convey in her story The Lottery that the normalization of events, fear and tradition, and selfishness are the roots of blind obedience and cause everyday people to become monsters. To begin, Shirley Jackson shows that heinous deeds can become normal over time. The most sinister aspect of The Lottery is the normalization of the killing of a neighbor. Every single person in the town is not bothered by the lottery. The townspeople schedule the lottery to happen around 10, so that it will be over in time for them to have lunch. The people of the town have no issue with continuing their day after killing someone that was apart of their community. It is through normalization that bad things can occur. The Council of American-Islamic Relations (CAIR), a Muslim civil rights and advocacy group, points out that the killing of Jews was not the first step in the Holocaust. In 1930s Germany there was a lot anti-Jew propaganda. Jews were often an object people could blame for their problems. They complained that Jews were taking jobs away from Germans; which is much like some Americans views on immigrants. Through the constant blame of Jews and propaganda against them in the media, the Nazis were able to normalize the hatred of Jews. By blindly listening to the media and bias, the people in 1930s Germany became just as bad as Nazis. The townspeople in The Lottery do the exact same thing. The children are playing with the rocks that will kill a person that they know and interact with constantly; they fill their pockets full of stones. Children should be questioning whether it is right to be killing a person, but they conform to what others do around them. No one questions the lottery. The townspeople gossip and joke before the lottery begins. They just think of the lottery as a mundane activity that they are forced to do. The lottery is just another part of their day they have to get thorough. If someone were to question the lottery, than people wouldnt have to die. In addition, once Tessie is chosen to be stoned and begins to panic, the townspeople tell her to be a good sport. These people dont even think about her or her situation. They blindly stone this lady without thinking of her family or why they are really doing it. The act of killing someone has become so normal to this town that they just want it to be over with quickly. Jackson warns that if heinous acts are normalized then the true horrors of a situation are hidden, making ordinary people monsters by blind obedience. Furthermore, the blind obedience found in The Lottery is even more intensified by fear and tradition. Fear is one of the best motivators; anyone can control another person through fear. Fear and tradition in The Lottery go hand in hand. There is a fear that if the sacrifice from the lottery is stopped, than the crops wont flourish; the lottery has worked for the townspeople for centuries, so they dont consider stopping the tradition. They repeatedly conform to the same pattern every year of bringing out the old box and killing someone. This is all they have ever know; lotteries are conducted in villages in all of the surrounding areas around the townspeople. The oldest man in town, Old Man Warner, has been apart of over 70 lotteries. No one in town has ever not been apart of the lottery. It has always happened and the crops always grow. The townspeople are like drones that carry out orders without thinking or realizing how pointless the lottery really is. They are afraid to speak up about the lottery because of what might happen to them. It is just a small town of just 300 people; no one talks about the lottery because they are afraid of judgment by the town, and they are afraid to alter the lottery for what might happen to their crops. The black box used for the lottery is old and shabby. There is always talk about making a new box, but no one wants to mess with the tradition that is represented by the black box. Jackson is able to demonstrate how strong of a hold tradition and fear have on people. Tradition makes it easy to blindly follow a routine, and fear is used a deterrent to stop an sort of questioning toward the lottery. In addition, selfishness is a further exemplifies blind obedience. We as people tend to not question anything until we personally are involved. The townspeople do not care about the families of the people who are sacrificed at the lottery; they only care about themselves. Even Tessie, the woman who gets stoned, jokes around during the lottery until she is chosen to be killed. We only care about ourselves and our safety. Tessie even tries to bring some of her married children in the lottery draw for her family to increase her odds of living. She would rather one of her own child die in her place than her. Nobody questions anything until they are apart of it. In present day, many people do not sympathize with the suffering and discrimination of minority groups because it does not affect them personally. They cannot see the pain of others because it does not affect them. Once the Hutchinsons have been chosen for the lottery, some of Nancy Hutchinsons school friends hope that it isnt her . Nancys friends do not care about Nancys family. They only think about themselves and what they would do without Nancy. They dont think of Nancys suffering or how the lottery will affect her and her family. Thomas Du Bose believes that Jackson is suggesting that people are not concerned about injustice and kindness unless these problems touch them personally. The townspeople are able to blindly obedient because the lottery doesnt concern them or their families. Once they open their piece of paper and dont see a black dot, they are relaxed; its not them. They just want the stoning to end quickly so they can go to lunch. Selfishness and not being able to put yourself in someone elses place causes people to be apart to horrific deeds. Any person can become a monster. It is not just figureheads who are evil, it is also ordinary people. Shirley Jackson is warning us that by being blindly obedient that we can create terror and suffering. Jackson is urging us to look for signs of normalization of awful things. She is telling us to question everything even if it is tradition, or is it scary to oppose. Jackson is telling us to look beyond ourselves and to not conform to awful practices. The Lottery is a call to action to be more aware of our surroundings and what we do. We need to be more self aware and see what we can do to help and change other people. Works Cited Du Bose, Thomas. The Lottery. Masterplots, Fourth Edition, November 2010, pp. 1-3. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx direct=truedb=lkhAN=103331MP421429820000662site=lrc-plus. Green, Jordan. CAIR Executive Director Decries normalization of Hate. The NC Triads Altweekly. Triad City Beat, 31 Mar. 2017. Web. 7 Apr. 2017. Quotes About Monsters (389 quotes). (389 quotes). N.p., n.d. Web. 7 Apr. 2017.

Gun control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words

Gun control - Essay Example 1). It is the responsibility of the governments to reduce firearms violence by developing gun control programs that make it more difficult for people to acquire and use guns. Federal, state, and local governments and law enforcement agencies need to better understand the gun violence problem so their limited resources can be effectively employed. This paper argue that gun control policies can significantly influence the number of deaths and injuries from firearms Gun Control Gun control is the government enacting some type of legislation to restrict availability of firearms or ammunition. The majority of governments that have implemented gun control legislation have focused on firearms ownership restrictions and background checks in attempt to reduce firearms violence. The common objective is to reduce a criminal's access to firearms in the hope that violent crime will be reduced. Currently, large urban areas of the United States are attempting to deal with a host of issues related t o firearms violence. Governments have used different types of laws and enforcement techniques in an attempt to eliminate or reduce firearms violence. The large numbers of homicides that occur in these areas have resulted in public pressure to effectively deal with the problem. Jurisdictions have attempted to lower the amount of firearms violence by enacting a number of laws on a whole range of issues related to firearms. ... 63-79) studied gun availability's effect on violent crime and found that a reduction in gun availability reduced the homicide rate and there was some change in the robbery rate. Why Gun Control in Necessary? Firearm injuries and deaths have reached an epidemic level in the United States. No other industrialized country in the world has comparable rates of mortality, morbidity, or financial costs incurred from firearm ownership and use (Fingerhut and Klein, 3290-3295). Firearm injuries are the second leading cause of injury death in the United States, and since 1972 have killed on average more than 30,000 people each year (Marwick, 1). More than 80 Americans die every single day as a result of firearms (Egendorf 74). While trends for the leading cause of injury death, motor vehicles, have been declining, deaths from firearms have increased. In some regions of the country, firearm deaths far exceed motor vehicle fatalities (Hoyert, Kochanek, Murphy 1). A study by Cohen & Steiner (p. 1- 8) ranked firearms as the 11th leading cause of death in the United States. Unlike motor vehicles, firearms are much less regulated. Firearms are not subject to any manufacturing standards or government oversight. For example, in many states, the purchase of guns does not require any licensing, education on how to use them, regulations for storage, or limitations on design or manufacturing (Egendorf 74). In 1998, five out of six handguns made in United States lacked basic magazine safeties to prevent the firearm from firing when the clip is removed or load indicators that would indicate when a bullet is in the gun (Vernick et al., 427-440). Gun manufacturers are producing more and more guns. About 4.5 million new firearms, including two million handguns are sold each year in the

Great Britain Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Great Britain - Essay Example rnment has been one of the most complex and multifaceted political processes.1 This is so because throughout history there has been a struggle to shift power and accountability from the supreme king to the people who claimed to be the representatives of people. Britain is one of the very few countries that have been lucky enough to have not been invaded over the past thousand years. Due to this reason, Britain has no history of any revolution or constitution. As a consequence, there has never arisen any need for a written constitution or set of laws. The ultimate result is that the political system of Britain is not really logical or clean. However, the change in laws that has occurred throughout history has been gradual and often built on consensus. One of the major problems that the political system in Britain faces is the fact that the United Kingdom throughout political history has been divided into three parts. According to Hesperides, the three parts of United Kingdom, namely Scotland, Wales and the Northern Ireland have special statuses and have separate local administrations with a huge number of responsibilities.2 It is, however, ironic because England, the part of Great Britain that has the highest (or more precisely 84%) population, does not have a strong sense of regionalism. As a result, the United Kingdom is not very similar to the American system of government that rules over a total of fifty states. Although matters like defence and foreign affairs are some things that are under the direct control of the central British government, devolution of the Scottish, the Welsh and the Irish assembly have led to a greater desire among the people to strengthen the local government in the United Kingdom. This has led to an increased divide between the people who just wish to be representatives of a certain group of people. UK, as mentioned earlier, is a country that has not been invaded and conquered in any way for the last thousand years. The fact that

Critical Case Study Exploration by Using Gibbs Model Essay

Critical Case Study Exploration by Using Gibbs Model - Essay Example 3). On top of the sustained practice, it is also necessary to avoid relying on a single learning strategy. For instance, a student can incorporate both visual and verbal methods in learning. Student can hold discussions with fellow students thus brainstorming what they have learned in class (Davis 2009, p. 21). Studies have exposed the significance of discussing with fellow students what one has learned in class. The last but not least strategy that can improve the failing student’s performance is the incorporation of practical sessions in the syllabus. It is impractical for a student to attain success by holding to the effective learning strategies only. Therefore, alongside such strategies, it is requisite for teachers to devise effective teaching strategies for purposes of augmenting the student’s performance. The Constructivist teaching is one of the current teaching strategies allowing students to examine what they are familiar with, thus making knowledgeable decis ions on the learning content. Moreover, the inclusion of some practical lessons in teaching is crucial, in enhancing a student’s understanding of the course content. This section will utilize Gibbs (1998) reflective model to answer some questions related to the case study. For instance, the first question demands that I identify my thoughts and feelings from the given case study. It is apparent that the student’s performance in the placement has tremendously declined. Prior to commencement of the program, I had a strong feeling that she would depict a high level of understanding for the subject. The result of my thought would be because she seemed kind and caring for patients. However, after the program commences, it is clear that I am totally mistaken because of incompetency demonstrated by her (Bulman 2004, P. 2). Therefore, her inefficiency in whatever she engages herself in makes me think of the possibility of poor learning and teaching practices. Her inability to prioritize the patients’ needs has shown her high level of incompetency. For instance, the student’s inability to relate the class theory to the practical is a clear indication of ineffective teaching, as well as learning methods. In my scrutiny, the student nurse ought to take their class work serious thus depicting a high level of competency in class work. Therefore, the case study indicated that nursing students did not dedicate their efforts to learning. I thus propose that, for an effective performance, the instructors ought to integrate teaching strategies that allow for the student’s active participation. The main reason behind the declined level of incompetence is due to the standardized examinations, which students must sit for in determining the level of qualification. Sources have shown that, it is only after a nursing student excels in such exams that they attain the acquiescence to deal with patients. Those who fail to excel in such exams ought to r etake them until their verification by the authorities. The literature also illustrates the issue of nursing incompetence in the stagnated, as well as the developing countries. Poor teaching strategies are the main causes of the decline in performance. Furthermore, the policy that aids in the examination of nursing qualification is erroneous thus a high level of ineptitude (Iyer 2001, p. 4). Therefore, the concerned authorities have implemented strategies

Business studies - asian pacific studies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Business studies - asian pacific studies - Essay Example The chaebol were guaranteed loans to divert the investment form agricultural setups to industrialisation (Song, 1990). With the availability of resources and support of the government, the chaebol played a tactical role in exposing the export market for the Korean economy and placed the country among the East Asian Tigers. Most of the success of the chaebol has come from the realisation of the Korean government after in the 1960s and later that they needed the ideas and cooperation of the chaebol to implement much of the government’s plans to turn the economy away from consumer driven goods and small industries (Stiglitz, 2001). Furthermore, in return to the chaebols’ cooperation, the government would extend special favours and allow monopolistic and oligopolistic presence of these business groups to grow. In addition, these business groups were also facilitated with foreign and domestic investments as loans as the Korean government guaranteeing their return if the business group failed to. In the shade of this government support, the chaebol not only helped themselves with huge foreign investments but also benefited from access to foreign technology. Since the chaebol were the only leaders to develop the industrial sector their success came with the expansion of the South Korean exports. The chaebol were solely dominating all industrial sectors with the support of the government and in the 1980s the chaebol were financially independent and did not need any further government assistance. The chaebol were heavily invested in meeting the demand of the export market and had tailored their products in accordingly. They had completely overseen the local market and the opportunities available within the borders of Korea (Stiglitz, 2001). Moreover, by the 1990s, the chaebol had developed oligopolistic competition among themselves and had reached overcapacity which the local market could not have supported in case of a decline in the

The Impact of U.S Mortgages Crisis on the Saudi Financial Market Dissertation

The Impact of U.S Mortgages Crisis on the Saudi Financial Market - Dissertation Example The investors in US withdrawn money from the market and the US economy entered into a financial recession. Most of the countries which are related with the US economy also got affected by the US mortgage crisis. Countries who were exposed to the mortgage securities were the first one to get adversely affected like European countries were badly affected by the financial crisis as they were also involved in the mortgage securities. Most of the financial institutions across the world suffered because of their purchase of bonds which were supported by the risky home loans and collateralised debt obligation commonly known as CDO. Once the subprime crisis offset in USA, the investors who invested in these instruments incurred loss. More the investors lost trust in the financial instruments and hence the financial markets got affected by the crisis (New York Times, 2007). The default of the subprime loans caused a ripple effect which first hit the mortgage companies and the lenders which in turn affected the real estate sector as they were not able to sell the more houses as they use to sell during the boom of the subprime loans. Loss of the real estate sector in turn affected the US financial markets and the US economy. With the era of globalisation almost all the countries’ economy are related to one another because of the financial and trade ties. Hence most of the countries around the world felt the heat of the credit crunch of the US economy. But, the extent of the affect of US mortgage crisis is different to different countries. As per the CEO and MD of Citi Group Asia Pacific (Markets and Banking) the effect of the US financial crisis has been limited. As per him the investors may concentrate more in emerging markets for long term growth (Rina Chandran, 2007). As per the chief economist of the World Bank for South Asia Shantayanan Devarajan, the countries in the South Asian region will not be adversely affected by the US mortgage crisis because the count ries in that region are not much exposed to the mortgage securities of the US. More over the countries have enough liquidity available in their domestic markets (World Bank, 2011). There are also reports that the equity markets of the Arab countries faced very less impact of the US financial crisis. The main reason behind the immunity of the Arab markets is cited as the major market players of the Arab financial markets have least expose to the global markets. More over it is also cited that the Arab banks have performed quite well in the past

War On Terror by Kenneth Waltz Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

War On Terror by Kenneth Waltz - Research Paper Example The first image proposes the individual nature of man as the primary cause of wars which is why it can to be known as ‘individual level of analysis’. As Waltz say in his book Man the State and War â€Å"the locus of the important causes of war is found in the nature and behavior of man†. This analysis coincides with the point of view of numerous philosophers such as Spinoza, Rousseau and Niebuhr who believed that war was the direct result of human aggressiveness self-interest, misdirected and stupidity to achieve a peace in a self intellectual level. Hence according to this level man must change his psyche, however this theory cannot be declared entirely true as Waltz himself later argued that the importance of human nature as an individual cause of wars is reduced by the fact that the very same nature explains a variety of events. Waltz then analyses another reason for war, that is the second image. He proposes that war is a product of internal structure and domestic strife within countries. ‘With many sovereign states, with no system of law enforceable among them, with each state judging its grievances and ambitions according to the dictates of its own reason or desire - conflict, sometimes leading to war, is bound to occur.’ He assumes that the nature of a states political institutions and how it is governed will determine whether the state will be at war or peaceful however the most logical counter argument to this analysis is that it assumes that â€Å"bad states lead to war†¦that good states mean peace in the world,†.... He assumes that the nature of a states political institutions and how it is governed will determine whether the state will be at war or peaceful however the most logical counter argument to this analysis is that it assumes that â€Å"bad states lead to war†¦that good states mean peace in the world,† ( Waltz 159) which in itself is a highly doubtful proposition. His third level of analysis emphasizes the anarchical international system composed of states and the interdependence of the policies of all states, namely the structure of the international system is the root cause of war. Analyzing political issues from the third image means relying on the international organizations, forums, and treaties that nations abide by. Major governmental and non governmental organizations are analyzed when seeking the causes of war and conflict according to third level of analysis. Waltz draws heavily upon the work of Rousseau and states that just as individuals act upon their immediate interests to the detriment of the general group interests, states should follow a rational course of action. Harmony in anarchy exists when not only is every state rational but every state assumes that every other state is rational too. Moreover, â€Å"To allow...for the irrational acts of others can lead to no determinate solution but to attempt to act on a rational calculation without making such an allowance can lead to (my own) undoing†(Waltz 169) I believe the most important cause lies in the third image i.e., the imperative influence of anarchy is the ‘underlying’ or ‘permissive’ cause of war. Many of the causes of war can be explained by the pressures exerted on states by the anarchic

Perfect competition Essay Example for Free

Perfect competition Essay Monopoly and monopolistic competitions, basic concepts monopoly means a market situation in which there is only a single seller and large no. of buyers. whereas monopolistic competition is a market situation in which there is large no. of sellers and large no. of buyers. in monopolistic competition, close substitutes are there in the sense that products are different in terms of size, colour,packaging,brand,price etc. as in case of soap,toothpaste etc. but in monopoly, there is no close substitute of the good,if any, it will be a remote substitute like in India, Indian railways has its monopoly but its remote substitutes are present like bus and air service. in monopolistic competition, there is aggressive advertising but in monopoly, there is no advertising at all or a very little. in monopolistic competition,demand curve faced by the firm is more elastic because of availability of close substitutes. it means if a firm raises its price, it will loose its large market share as customers in large will shift to close substitutes present in the market. but in monopoly, the demand curve faced by the firm is less elastic because of no close substitutes. if means if the firm raises its price, demand will not fall in a large quantity as it is only one in the market. u have to understand that the four different kinds, perfect, monopolistic, oligopoly, monopoly are on a spectrum with perfect and monopoly on the extremes, monopolistic is very similar to perfect, and monopoly is different that its a hard market to enter, because theres very few firms and require a big budget to get started. look up the graphs for these competitions and you should have a better understanding MONOPOLY IN TELECOMMUNICATION . Competition in Telecommunications Services Experience has demonstrated that free and open competition benefits individual consumers and societies as a whole by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and expanded consumer choice. The benefits of competition are readily seen in todays telecommunications sector. Dynamic technological change is resulting in new services and systems that provide innovative solutions to communications needs across the globe. As a result, telecommunications is becoming increasingly important to the efficiency and effectiveness of private and public sector institutions. In this environment of rapid change, a competitive marketplace will tap the potential of the telecommunications sector to serve the economic and social well-being of all citizens. BENEFITS OF COMPETITION Free and open competition benefits individual consumers and the global community by ensuring lower prices, new and better products and services, and greater consumer choice than occurs under monopoly conditions. In an open market, producers compete to win customers by lowering prices, developing new services that best meet the needs of customers. A competitive market promotes innovation by rewarding producers that invent, develop, and introduce new and innovative products and production processes. By doing so, the wealth of the society as a whole is increased. In a competitive environment, businesses that fail to understand and react to consumer needs face the loss of customers and declining profits. A policy framework to establish, foster, and regulate competition is critical to the delivery of benefits expected and demanded by consumers. In other words, competition rewards entrepreneurship, responsiveness, and enthusiasm; it punishes sluggishness and indifference. Because of the increasing importance of the telecommunications sector to the overall economy, countries can ill afford the sluggishness and indifference that so often characterize the provision of products and services under monopoly conditions. As developments in technology continue to produce efficient and exciting communications services, societies may be significantly disadvantaged if they forego the rewards of entrepreneurship and responsiveness associated with open, competitive telecommunications markets. POLICY GOALS TO ACHIEVE COMPETITIVE MARKETS In order to achieve the benefits of competition described above, governments and regulators must establish an appropriate policy framework to govern the telecommunications sector. First, governments should remove legal barriers that protect existing monopoly providers from competition by new entrants. Second, policymakers should take affirmative steps to promote competition in sectors of the market that were previously closed to competition. Examples of these steps include adopting policies that encourage multiple methods and modes of market entry. Third, policymakers should consider introducing competitive safeguards to protect against the exercise of market power by incumbent carriers during the transition to competition. The most fundamental of these competitive safeguards involves regulation of the terms and conditions governing interconnection with the existing monopoly providers network. In the United States, although important steps were made to promote competition in the telecommunications sector prior to passage of the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the law firmly established the intent to provide for a pro-competitive, deregulatory national policy framework designed to accelerate private sector deployment of advanced telecommunications and information technologies and services to all Americans by opening all telecommunications markets to competition. EFFECTS OF COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATION SECTOR. The benefits of introducing competition in telecommunications markets are apparent in all segments of the telecommunications market. For instance, competition in the United States and many other countries in long distance and international telecommunications services has led to a dramatic decline in consumer rates for these services, as well as a dramatic increase in demand and a substantial increase in investment. International telecommunications services can be particularly important to the development of a stable and robust economy linked to the global marketplace. The 1997 WTO Agreement on Basic Telecommunications Services ushered in a new era for telecommunications competition in many countries of the world. As part of that agreement, 72 countries have made commitments to open their telecommunications markets to foreign suppliers of basic telecommunications services. As these countries implement their commitments, dramatic change has occurred in their telecommunications markets. In many countries, there are several new providers of international and domestic telecommunications services, and prices are dramatically lower. As a result, increased competition has led to lower international settlement rates in many countries which, in turn, has led to lower calling prices for consumers. Lower calling prices means that people can afford to make more calls, more often, creating closer ties between family and friends in different countries and strengthening business relationships. Thus, introducing competition in international telecommunications markets produces benefits throughout a countrys economy. In addition, as part of the WTO Agreement, 49 countries made commitments to open their satellite service markets. These commitments have helped increase the ability of global and regional satellite providers to obtain the requisite authorizations for their systems. Similarly, in many countries private investment and competition in the provision of terrestrial wireless telecommunications infrastructure has led to declining prices for, and widespread use of, wireless telephone service. In areas where teledensity can increase, moreover, price reductions may expand the number of households that can afford service. This increased demand may make build-out decisions more attractive. For example, in Chile, lower prices increased traffic by 260% from 1994 to 1997. In 1987, there were 6. 7 phones per 100 households in Chile; this number rose to 11 in 1992 and to 15. 2 in 1996. As lower prices stimulate greater demand, an overall increase in revenues results despite additional providers in the market. In the U. S. long distance market, lower prices, in combination with an expanding market for services, have offset revenue loss from price reductions and the decrease in market share. For example, while ATTs long distance market share fell from 90% in 1984 to 45% in 1997, its revenues increased from $35 billion to $40 billion during this same period. Thus, although ATT lost market share, its revenues increased in a competitive marketplace. The benefits from introducing competition in international and domestic telecommunications markets can be fully realized, however, only when market participants have the incentive to compete vigorously to attract the greatest amount of business. It has been the U. S.experience that these incentives exist only where there is open entry into the telecommunications services market. Where entry is limited, or where only one or two new entrants are allowed to compete against the incumbent carrier, the benefits of competition are limited as well. For instance, when cellular telephone service was first introduced into the United States in the 1980s there were only two licensees in each market. As a result, prices remained relatively high and demand was more limited. After additional licenses were authorized in each market, priced dropped, new services were introduced and demand exploded. BUILDING A TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR AS A PART OF ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Developing countries face many infrastructure challenges. While roads, water, and electricity are obvious fundamental requirements, development of a strong communications and information system is vital for the country to survive and prosper. As global developments increasingly push competition and its benefits, developing countries can realize these benefits in part through encouraging the establishment of an indigenous telecommunications sector. And one highly effective way to achieve this is to promote and nurture the growth of small and entrepreneurial entities within that sector. The United States experience provides some insight. Historically, most of the cutting- edge commercial and technology breakthroughs in the United States have been developed by individual entrepreneurs or small businesses, from Alexander Graham Bell to Bill Gates. Additionally, Americas 22 million small businesses produce more than half of the nations gross domestic product, and businesses employing fewer than twenty people have created all 99. 99 percent of the nations new jobs in recent years. Such a phenomenal success story is due not only to the free enterprise system and profit motive, but also to a carefully developed government policy of supporting and nurturing small businesses. The U. S. has implemented numerous federal programs to assist small businesses in harnessing the engines of economic growth and innovation loan guarantee programs, technical assistance programs, investment programs, anti- discrimination regulatory programs, outreach efforts, information and training programs. Congress. established the Telecommunications Development Fund, some $25 million, to invest in promising new telecommunications businesses. Obviously the environment and situation of most developing countries is quite different from that in the United States, and overcoming an embedded monopoly telecom provider is something weve never had to do. Still, some basic steps privatizing, establishing an independent regulator, developing helpful tax and labor laws, a willingness to waive regulatory and filing requirements to the extent possible can produce great benefits. A developing country could make it a condition for foreign carriers and operators serving seeking to provide service to (or within) its territory to undertake efforts to promote or support indigenous and start-up businesses. Supporting the growth of small and entrepreneurial telecom businesses by various means can lead to permanent economic gains for developing nations economies, and to full participation in the global telecom marketplace. METHODS OF INTRODUCING COMPETITION IN THE TELECOMMUNICATIONS SECTOR Restricting methods and modes of entry can cause investment distortions and result in higher prices to consumers. It is by allowing the marketplace to select preferred approaches that policymakers encourage efficient entry. Three methods are typically used to introduce competition into the telecommunications sector: * Facilities-based competition * Unbundling of network elements * Resale In addition, a technologically neutral policy fosters innovative systems and alternative facilities designed to meet the needs of the marketplace. For example, the construction of a wireless network may be more appropriate in some markets than the development of a competing wireline carrier. Facilities-Based Competition. When a new entrant constructs a network using its own facilities to reach its customers (i. e. , without using the incumbent carriers network), that type of entry is commonly referred to as full facilities-based competition. By developing a new network, a facilities-based competitor is not constrained by existing, possibly obsolete embedded plant and instead can install the newest, most efficient technology. As a result, the competitor will be able to supply new or additional services such as faster transmission and switching speeds or higher bandwidth capacity, and may be able to do so at lower costs than the incumbent. Facilities-based competitors not only directly benefit their customers but also create competitive pressure for the incumbent to upgrade its network. In addition, facilities-based entry allows the marketplace to drive competition with less regulatory presence. As discussed more fully below, full facilities-based entrants still require interconnection for the mutual exchange of traffic with other providers. New entrants customers need to be able to communicate with subscribers on other networks, especially the incumbents network where the majority of users obtain their service. Without the ability to interconnect on fair terms, a new facilities-based competitor cannot survive. Use of Unbundled Network Elements While full facilities-based competition has many advantages, it may not always be practical for a new entrant to construct an entire network. For example, it may be economically feasible to construct switching and long distance facilities but infeasible to construct local loops or last mile facilities that connect to customer locations. This might be due to economies of scale or the practical difficulties associated with acquiring needed rights-of-way. Thus, a second entry route is one in which the new entrant constructs portions of a network and purchases access to the relevant essential facilities of the incumbent providers network, such as the local loop. This method of entry is referred to as using unbundled network elements, and typically must be required by law or regulation. Entry through the use of unbundled network elements has a number of important advantages. First, it reduces entry barriers by allowing new entrants to begin offering service without having to construct an entire network. Second, on a longer term basis, it prevents the incumbent carrier from exploiting any residual monopoly power that may arise through remaining economies of scale or from the practical difficulties of obtaining needed rights-of-way, antenna sites for wireless systems, etc. Third, it allows new entrants additional avenues of innovation. For example, new entrants can purchase unbundled loops from the established carrier and use them with entirely different types of technologies (e. g. , packet switches based upon Internet Protocol (IP)) than those employed by the incumbent carrier. In this arrangement, consumers benefit from these new and better services and additional choices that competition provides. Regulatory intervention is necessary in order to require the incumbent carrier to unbundle its network and to price the resulting elements at economically efficient prices. More specifically, incumbents should be required to provide any requesting telecommunications carrier non-discriminatory access to elements of the incumbents network on an unbundled basis on rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory. Incumbents should be required to provide any reasonable method of interconnection, including physical collocation or virtual collocation, or interconnection at a point between the incumbents and new entrants network. In the United States, the Telecommunications Act of 1996 identified a minimum list of network elements that incumbent local exchange carriers must unbundle. These network elements include: local loops, network interface devices, local and tandem switching capabilities, interoffice transmission facilities, signaling and call-related databases, operations support systems, and operator services and directory assistance facilities. In addition, new entrants should have access to pole lines, ducts, conduits, and rights-of-way owned or controlled by the incumbent. Resale In the telecommunications context, resale occurs when competitors obtain a service at a discounted or wholesale rate from the underlying, established carrier and then sell the service to their own customers. Resale can serve a multi-faceted role in promoting and sustaining competition in telecommunications services. Resale may be an effective entry vehicle for new entrants that may initially lack the necessary capital to build their own networks. Resale may also allow small competitors, which will not become facilities-based providers, to offer service. In addition, resellers may stimulate usage of the incumbents network, and thus may benefit the incumbent facilities-based provider and further growth of the entire sector. Moreover, this competition may help to keep prices lower for consumers, increase consumer choice, and ultimately stimulate economic growth. Experience in the U. S. long distance market suggests that resale can yield significant public benefits. Resale competition takes the form of arbitrage, where a reseller purchases a large number of minutes at a quantity discount and resells them to small customers at prices lower than the retail prices otherwise available to those customers. By providing affordable prices for the customer, resellers stimulate demand and thus compel facilities-based carriers to bring their prices closer to actual costs. At the same time, the increased competition from resellers expands the availability of innovative services, such as new billing terms and alternative rate structures. In particular, resellers can create consumer value by creating different billing plans or targeting their marketing to under-served groups within the community. Many countries have committed to a policy of resale as part of the WTO Basic Telecommunications Agreement to provide market access for basic telecommunications services. For smaller countries, resale provides some of the benefits of competition even if the total amount of telecommunications traffic generated is insufficient to attract multiple facilities-based carriers. Resellers may resell an entire service without modification, which is referred to as Total Service Resale. Resellers may also choose to obtain some services from the underlying carrier and combine them with services that they provide themselves. For example, a carrier may offer long distance services using its own switching facilities but lease long haul facilities from the incumbent provider. Resale also allows providers to offer bundles of different services without actually constructing the necessary facilities. By doing so, they can achieve certain economies in terms of marketing while providing a package of services for the convenience of their customers. For example, a local exchange carrier can offer long distance services without constructing long haul facilities. Similarly, a carrier offering both local and long- distance services could add mobile services to its package without constructing its own wireless network. In many industries resale occurs as a natural part of the development of markets. However, in telecommunications, a dominant carrier may be required by law or regulation to make its services available for resale. In particular, a regulatory requirement may be necessary to force the underlying carrier to offer services at a wholesale rate. In a competitive market, however, some providers may find a source of revenue in the provision of services on a wholesale basis. This often occurs when the facilities-based carrier has excess capacity on its network. In the U. S. long distance market, some carriers have constructed nationwide fiber-optic networks with the intent of offering transmission services on a wholesale basis to other carriers. Real market experience has shown that resale can spur competition. The growth of competition in the U. S. long distance market resulted from a combination of the facilities-based and resale competition models. From the early stages of long distance competition, facilities-based providers and resellers have actively competed against one another. This approach resulted in more affordable rates, new service offerings, and numerous new entrants. Despite the obvious benefits of resale, it has limitations. First of all, the reseller is limited to a greater or lesser extent by the technical features and functions of the underlying carriers network. This limits the ability of the reseller to innovate. Second, resale alone does not put competitive pressure on wholesale rates and services because the underlying carrier may not be subject to competitive pressures to innovate at the wholesale level. This means that the regulator must retain some degree of control over the pricing, terms and conditions of the wholesale offering. INTERCONNECTION, THE KEY TO COMPETITIVE SUCCESS The key to competition within telecommunications services is the ability of networks to interconnect. Interconnection allows communications to occur across networks, linking competitors so customers of different networks can communicate with one another. For competition to be successful at maximizing consumer benefits and innovation in the telecommunications market, carriers that compete for customers must also provide competitors with access to those customers. Shared access to customers occurs through interconnection, and access to all customers is necessary both for successful entry and for continued competition. If the incumbent, with the vast majority of customers, does not interconnect with new entrants, it is unlikely that the new entrants will remain economically viable. A regulatory framework is needed to aid in the transition from a monopoly environment to a competitive environment because a monopoly or dominant provider has a strategic interest to keep out or minimize competitors in its market. As a result, the monopoly or dominant provider has a strong incentive to limit interconnection. Therefore, a regulator that is independent of any operator and of inappropriate political influence should adopt rules that give new entrants bargaining strength equal to the incumbents. The price of interconnection (or transport and termination), for example, could serve as a significant barrier to entry for new networks. An incumbent monopolist has an incentive to demand a high price to terminate calls originating on a new entrants network and pay nothing for calls originating on its own network. In the United States, transport and termination charges are reciprocal and based on the long run incremental cost of providing the transport and termination on the incumbents network. Thus, the primary purpose of mandated interconnection is to foster a competitive environment that is fair to all competitors. Because the incumbent service provider has the vast majority of customers, a new entrant must be able to interconnect in order to provide full access to its customers. Without the ability to interconnect, new entrants would be severely restricted in their ability to compete with the incumbent. REGULATORY TOOLS FOR PROTECTING AGAINST THE EXERCISE OF MARKET POWER DURING THE TRANSITION TO COMPETITION Special problems may arise when a telecommunications carrier with monopoly power in the provision of a particular service or facility wants to offer a competitive service that is dependent upon the use of the monopoly service or facility. This may occur, for example, where competition has been introduced in the long distance and international markets but the local market remains a monopoly. The two problems are cost- shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. The first problem arises if the monopoly service is regulated on a rate-of-return (profit) basis. If so, there is an incentive for the carrier with monopoly power to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Shifting costs in this manner artificially raises the price of the monopoly service and allows the carrier to charge below-cost rates for the competitive service. This results in the captive customers paying above- cost rates for the monopoly services and hampers the development of a viable market for the competitive services. An example of this situation could occur when a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services wants to enter the long distance market or information services market. The second problem occurs when control over an essential service or facility necessary for a competitive service enables the monopoly carrier to discriminate in favor of its own competitive offering. For example, a carrier with monopoly power in the provision of local facilities or services has the incentive to discriminate in favor of its own long distance or information service. This discrimination may manifest itself in the form of better quality interconnection or faster installation times for needed facilities or services. What follows is an overview of some of the tools that are available to policymakers and regulators to discourage or prevent cost-shifting/cross-subsidization and discrimination. These tools or techniques can be used alone or in combination. The more stringent techniques may be appropriate when and where the threat is greatest. Less stringent techniques may be appropriate as competition takes hold in the previously monopolized market. Outright Prohibition on Providing the Competitive Product or Service One technique for preventing a carrier with monopoly power from cross-subsidizing and discriminating in the provision of a competitive service is to prohibit the carrier from entering the competitive market. Outright prohibitions have been and are being used in the United States. For example, the original agreement (Consent Decree) that led to the divestiture of the Bell Operating Companies from ATT prohibited the former from certain activities, including the provision of certain long distance services and information services. Under the Telecommunications Act of 1996, the Bell Operating Companies are prohibited from offering long distance services and alarm services until certain conditions are met. While outright prohibition prevents cross-subsidization and discrimination, it may also deny the public the benefits of possible economies of scale or scope that may be derived if the carrier is allowed to provide the competitive service. Outright prohibition may also deny the public the benefits of innovation that might come from the participation of the monopoly carrier in the competitive market. Price Caps for Regulated Monopoly Services The incentive to shift costs from a competitive service to a monopoly service exists under profit regulation. Under price cap regulation, the prices of the monopoly services are capped (indexed to inflation and expected productivity increases). Price cap regulation has a number of advantages, including incentives for the carrier to be more efficient. It also discourages the monopoly provider from shifting costs from the competitive activity to the monopoly activity, because if the price of the monopoly service is capped, there is no incentive to shift costs from the competitive service to the monopoly service. Separate Subsidiary Requirement Under this requirement, the carrier with monopoly power is allowed to provide the competitive service, but only through a separate subsidiary or affiliate. The separate subsidiary requirement is combined with an obligation that the monopoly carrier treat the affiliated company no better than it treats unaffiliated providers of the competitive service. In other words, the monopoly carrier must deal with the affiliate on an arms- length basis. The regulator has the ability to control the degree of separateness. Examples of the requirements for separateness can include requirements that the monopoly provider and its affiliate: * Maintain separate books of account. * Utilize separate officers and personnel * Employ separate marketing activities * Not share common equipment or facilities * Adhere to certain restrictions on information flows that would unfairly benefit the competitive affiliate In addition, a typical requirement is that if the affiliate must obtain any transmission services from the monopoly provider, it must do so on a tariffed basis. Tariffing Requirements Tariffing is a fundamental technique traditionally used to protect users (both consumers and other carriers) against discrimination. Tariffing requires the regulated monopolist to file tariffs explaining its service rates, terms and conditions with the regulatory agency and to adhere to those rates, terms and conditions once the tariff is filed. Through the tariff and enforcement processes, which include opportunities for public comment, the regulator has some ability to prevent cross-subsidization and discrimination. Accounting Separation A requirement to maintain separate books of account can be adopted even without the imposition of a separate subsidiary requirement. Accounting separation typically requires the regulated monopoly provider to set up and maintain separate books of account for the competitive activity and to adhere to prescribed methods of separating costs. This provides a degree of protection against cross-subsidization. Imputation Requirements An imputation requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to charge the same amount for a service or facility provided to a competitive affiliate or operation that it charges to an unaffiliated provider, and to include that amount in the price it charges for the competitive service. Service Quality Reporting Requirements A service quality reporting requirement obligates the regulated monopolist to collect date and report on the quality of the services provided to both affiliated and unaffiliated competitors. This helps regulators detect and correct discrimination in the provision of essential services or facilities to competitors. Resale Requirements As discussed earlier, a resale requirement has a number of advantages in promoting competition. Resale can also help prevent cross-subsidization. For example, where a carrier has market power in the provision of switched services but there is competition in the provision of private lines, the carrier may try to increase the price of the switched service in order to cross-subsidize and thus under-price its private line offering. If the carrier is required to allow the resale of the private line offerings, however, entrepreneurs could combine the private lines with their own switching, and undercut the prices of the monopolists switched service offering. This has the effect of discouraging the carrier with market power from engaging in cross-subsidization. Unbundling Requirements An unbundling requirement forces the regulated monopolist to make network elements available to competitors on an unbundled basis under rates, terms and conditions that are just, reasonable, and non-discriminatory.

A Memetic Algorithm for Multi Level Redundancy Allocation

A Memetic Algorithm for Multi Level Redundancy Allocation Abstract Reliability Redundancy allocation problem determines the component reliability and redundancy level for each subsystem in order to improve the system reliability. Redundancy allocation problem is NP-hard problem and hence various Heuristic and meta-heuristic approaches are being applied.[1] This paper proposes a memetic algorithm to solve the RAP problem. Although the real engineering experience deals with multi-level systems, in this paper prior assumptions are made such that the algorithm has been applied to single level systems. This proposed MA is then compared against the HGA of a two multi-level systems and the proposed MA has outperformed the HGA of two multi-level system. INTRODUCTION of Articles In this article, a new Memetic algorithm has been proposed to solve the Redundancy Allocation Problem which has attained great attention in recent years. Prior assumptions has been made in order to investigate the Multi-Level Redundancy Allocation problem and the three important assumptions are: If a unit is not at its lowest level then its child units are assumed to be serial and they are fixed. The second assumption is that the redundancy can be allocated to the units at any level and the final assumption is that the quality of each component is predefined and the cost and the reliability are calculated based on child units if and only if the unit is not a component. From the various literature review which has been carried out, it is found that there are few approaches to MLRAP and these are rarely being investigated. Genetic Algorithm and the modified Genetic Algorithm which is the Hierarchical Genetic Algorithm is although considered to be the significant approach for MLRAP, the effectiveness of these approaches can be improved. Thus for the improvement in these approaches, the new Memetic Algorithm has been proposed in this article. Memetic algorithm is a population based eta-heuristic search method which uses the combination of global search engines along with the local search heuristics. According to the article MA is more successful than the GA because of two key issues. One is the appropriate balance between the global and local search engines and the other is the cost effectiveness. In this article two new genetic operators and a new problem specific local search operator are incorporated in the MA framework and a new MA has been proposed for approaching the MLRAP. In this article, the parts of a multi-level serial system has been defined hierarchically at the topmost level and the sub system has been defined at the lower level and the components in the lowest level. As per the assumption made previously, there is fixed number of child units for each unit except a component. The redundancy allocation procedure always starts from the system level and moves to the component level for a multi-level serial system. The reliability of the multi-level serial system can be calculated using, While the reliability of the units at the lower level can be calculated on the basis of the components using, Also the cost for the multi-level serial system is calculated using, When applying the Conventional GA for solving MLRAP, the decision variables becomes in fixed number during problem solving. Whereas in MLRAP problem solving the decision variable changes due to the change in redundancy allocation to a unit. Hence to overcome this problem, a hierarchical structure has been proposed in the article which is capable of changing the decision variables. Nomenclature Explanation of the work presented in journal articles The proposed MA in the article has two types of operators which consists of the genetic operator for global explorations and the local search operator for exploitation. This section explains the articles you reviewed. In the proposed model, the quality of the solutions should be evaluated and from the literature the author of the article has pointed out many techniques to measure the quality of the solution out of which a penalty function which has been proposed by Gen and Cheng has been used to derive the fitness function to evaluate the quality of the solution during the search process. This fitness function is given by, ÃŽÂ ¨(x) is the penalty function which measures the extent of the solution violating the constraints. The initialization of the MA is generally done at the system level and it starts from generating the random population of solutions. For a system of multi-level series, K integer is generated randomly for n child unit n X k redundancy units have to be generated at the second level and goes on until an individual is obtained. Of the two proposed genetic operators, before being applied the hierarchical representation need to be selected. And hence the solution highly depends on type of the hierarchical representation being selected. Then the two genetic operators will be applied to the iteration and both the operator treat the unit or the system at the same level. Of the two genetic operators, the crossover between two individuals occurs in three steps. Initially an intermediate is selected from the system and component level and the higher level is being assigned higher probability. Finally the selected levels exchange their lower structures to give two new individuals. Whereas the mutation also occurs in three steps but is applied to individual level. The first two steps remains the same as the crossover and the third step is replacing the redundancy of the selected unit by a randomly generated integer. Also when changing the redundancy corresponding decision variable o the parent unit should also be updated. The other operator of the proposed MA is the local search operator. In the new MA proposed in the article, local search operator is implemented in three steps. The population solution are evaluated through the metric which is given by, Then a single individual is chosen from the population solution. The local search is carried out based on it. Then the individual with the higher metric is selected for local search. For an MLRAP, it is desired to have an optimal system for a higher reliability and the reliability to cost ratio serves as a measure to determine the potential of the individual solution. The local search operator randomly selects ten pairs of components and for each pair the redundancy of the components are modified and during this search newly generated individual will be stored in the archive if and only if it donot violate the cost constraint. Finally, the preserved inividual will be mixed with the population solution and arranged descendingly and the top most individuals will be used discarding others. Discussion of Contributions Two systems has been taken into consideration. One system with three levels and the other system with four levels. With this systems into consideration, the performance of the proposed MA is to be evaluated and compared with the performance of conventional HGA. Since there are a number of control parameters in both HGA and the proposed MA, there are some values which are to be preset before beginning the experiment. For fair process, the values which has been set for HGA is used as same for the proposed MA for problem A. In this experiment the aim is to study the convergence behavior of the proposed MA in order to compare it with HGA. The best solution obtained in each generation is recorded and the corresponding system reliability is calculated. It is seen that both the methods converged fast whereas the convergence of the proposed MA is significantly better than the convergence of the HGA which is shown in Fig 1. Fig:1 Comparison of convergence between HGA and MA for Problem A.[1] Furthermore the comparisons has been carried by varying the numerous cost constraints. 20 cost constraint values are varied between the intervals 150 to 340 leaving the system parameters unchanged. For every constraint values, MA and HGA were applied 10 times to each cost constraint. The observations are made for each and every run and the reliability and the cost constraints are calculated and compared between MA and HGA. From the calculative comparison, it is evident that the proposed new MA has outperformed the conventional HGA for problem A that is the system with three levels. The same kind of experiment is carried out for problem B to examine whether the advantage of MA holds a variety of system parameters. Similar to the problem A, ten test instances are obtained and the MA and HGA are applied to each instances for ten times. The convergence of MA is significantly better than the convergence of HGA which is shown below. Fig:2 Convergence of MA and HGA for problem 2[1] Since the same kind of experiment was done on problem B, the results were also quite the same. The proposed MA has outperformed the conventional HGA. Discussion of Dificiency and Potential Improvements The article being reviewed here discusses only about the multi-level serial system and the experimentation has been done considering this system alone. Changing the condition and the structure of the system changes the reliability and the cost function of the corresponding solution changes. Also the proposed MA gives significant reliability for the multi-level serial system, the proposed MA should also be extended to multi-level serial systems of complex structures. Also the problems which is being formulated in the article are single objective or are of only one goal of increasing the reliability of the system by having the cost reduction as only one constraint. Instead, in the future research, the problems can be formulated with multiple objective and multiple constraint along with the cost constraint. This type of approach with multiple objective problems will yield multiple solutions which has trade-off between the system reliability and cost constraint. Summary The RAP which has attained a global attention among the researchers motivating them to find the solution for the RAP. Though many algorithms, techniques and approaches have been proposed by many researchers around the world, there is something which can be improved in each and every approach proposed by researchers to solve the MLRAP. In this article, the author has given a detailed approach on how does a reliability problem works and formulated in a way that the problem deals with the multi-level serial system of simple structure. Upon formulating a problem, the author tries to make proper assumptions to advocate the formulated problem. Then the author just solves it with the conventional GA approach which yields a good system reliability. Then the problem is again solved with the new method. This new method is being proposed by the author is the novel Memetic Algorithm where some preconditioning is being done to the solution that is being selected form the population solution. The solution is checked for the quality by using a fitness function. Now the population solution will be initialized and the two search operators of the MA is applied to the selected and preserved solution from the population samples of solution. The solutions which are being obtained from the search operators are then being combined with the population and the best among them is selected. The process is repeated for various generations and the best individual will be selected as the solution for the MLRAP. Then the approaches are compared and it is found that the proposed MA has outperformed the conventional HGA irrespective of the type of multi-level serial system of same structure. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Dr. Wang,   fellow, IEEE, and Dr. Tang, fellow, IEEE and Dr. Yao, fellow, IEEE for their research study that was done by them to prepare the article, which helped me to understand the concept behind the RAP and MLRAP and the techniques used to solve or approach MLRAP. I would also like to express my Thanks to Dr. Pingfeng Wang, Graduate Coordinator in Wichita State University for his valuable advice which guided me through this project and helped me to complete this review successfully. References [1] Wang, Z., Tang, K., Yao, X. (2010). A memetic algorithm for multi-level redundancy allocation. IEEE Transactions on reliability, 59(4), 754-765. [2]  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  Ãƒâ€šÃ‚   Sharifi, M., Cheragh, G., Maljaii, K. D., Zaretalab, A., Daei, A. V. F., Vahid, A. (2015). RELIABILITY OPTIMIZATION OF A SERIES-PARALLEL K-OUT-OF-N SYSTEM WITH FAILURE RATE DEPENDS ON WORKING COMPONENTS OF SYSTEM. International Journal of Industrial Engineering, 22(4), 438-453.

Essay on Differences in Men and Women in Story of an Hour

The Story of an Hour - Differences in Men and Women Kate Chopin's "The Story of an Hour" appears merely to explore a woman's unpredictable reaction to her husband's assumed death and reappearance, but actually Chopin offers Mrs. Mallard's bizarre story to reveal problems that are inherent in the institution of marriage. By offering this depiction of a marriage that stifles the woman to the point that she celebrates the death of her kind and loving husband. Chopin challenges her readers to examine their own views of marriage and relationships between men and women. Each reader's judgment of Mrs. Mallard and her behavior inevitably stems from his or her own personal feelings about marriage and the influences of societal expectations. Readers of differing genders, ages, and marital experiences are, therefore, likely to react differently to Chopin's startling portrayal of the Mallards' marriage, and that certainly is true of my response to the story compared to my father's and grandmother's responses. Marriage often establishes boundaries between people that make them unable to communicate with each other. The Mallards' marriage was evidently crippled by both their inability to talk to one another and Mrs. Mallard's conviction that her marriage was defined by a "powerful will bending hers in that blind persistence with which men and women believe they have a right to impose a private will upon a fellow-creature." Yet she does not recognize that it is not just men who impose their will upon women and that the problems inherent in marriage affect men and women equally. To me, Mrs. Mallard is a somewhat sympathetic character, and I appreciate her longing to live ou... ...o relate more easily to her predicament and are quicker to exonerate her any of responsibility for her unhappy situation. Conversely, male readers are more likely to feel compassion for Mr. Mallard, who loses his wife for reasons that will always remain entirely unknown to him. Older readers probably understand more readily the strength of social forces and the difficulty of trying to deny societal expectations concerning gender roles in general and marriage in particular. Younger readers seem to feel that Mrs. Mallard is too passive and that she could have improved her domestic life immeasurably if she had taken the initiative to either improve or end her relationship with her husband. Ultimately, how each individual reader responds to Mrs. Mallard's story reveals his or her own ideas about marriage, society, and how men and women communicate with each other

Pumpin Iron :: essays research papers

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  You see them smiling. Standing poised, focused and in a state of jubilation. Some think they are crazy and have little regard for them while others idolize, respect and perhaps even aspire to be one someday. Whether they choose to do it professionally as a career, or simply for recreational purposes; the life of a Bodybuilder can be a very fulfilling and rewarding experience. But not without it’s share of hardships and tribulations.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It was June of 2003, when I decided to train for and compete in the NY State Natural Bodybuilding Competition. I had been a Personal Trainer for close to four years and been training routinely for almost seven years. Up to that point, my lifestyle of living in the gym and learning all I can about nutrition and exercise was strictly a hobby for me. An obsession, but a hobby nonetheless. I had met a group of really nice guys at my gym, some of who had previously competed in competitions, and they convinced me to train with them for the next competition that was eight weeks away. What transpired over those following eight weeks was an experience I will never forget.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We wasted no time preparing. The day immediately following our decision to train together, we devised a bulking diet for ourselves. The purpose of this diet was to eat as much as you can for three to four weeks of relatively clean food, such as; chicken, beef, fish, tuna, potatoes, vegetables and so on. I was consuming anywhere from 4000 to 5000 calories a day during that time. In conjunction to the high calorie diet, I was also drinking close to two gallons of water a day. This left me feeling very bloated, stuffed, and borderline sick. There is not enough time in the day to prepare 5000 calories worth of food, so I had to supplement a lot by drinking high-calorie shakes often throughout the day at work. Taking in 340 grams of Protein a day further required me to keep all kinds of supplements, powders, potions, pills; you name it, at work to be readily availably to me. My office was slowly beginning to resemble a GNC store.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Once I began to cope with the massive amounts of food I was consuming, I soon had another obstacle to overcome; the training. Never before had I trained like this.

War: From World War II to 2002 Essay -- essays research papers fc

War: From World War II to 2002 The end of World War II was the spawn of a new war that would continue for over fifty years: The Cold War. Technically this war was not a fifty-year physical confrontation between two countries but more of a political confrontation between the world’s two remaining super-powers. The dropping of the atomic bomb in 1945 on Hiroshima and Nagasaki was the beginning of a new arsenal that would lead to the development of nuclear weapons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After Japan and Germany were defeated in World War II, a solutions to prevent the future event of a third world war were taken by the establishment of the United Nations to outlaw all private wars. Another right of the United Nations was to punish those villains that were guilty of war crimes against humanity. The problem with this type of procedure is that the winners of a combat situation, whether right or wrong, are the ones that get to decide who is on the wrong side of the law and who is not.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The atom bomb, which was mentioned earlier as the â€Å"problem solver† of World War II, would prove to lead to a larger dilemma. Prior to the atomic bomb and later the hydrogen bomb, it was thought that any weapon could be defended against. The problem with the communist countries of Russia was their doctrine of totalitarianism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The main focus of the time was building an intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), and the only countries with the resources were Russia and the United States. Russia shocked the world with the launch of Sputnik in 1957 followed by the first orbital flight around the world. It appeared that the Soviets were going to beat the Americans in the â€Å"Space Race† and reap all of the benefits from it as well: Reconnaissance, surveillance, communication, and delivery platforms for weapons.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Russian’s philosophy was built on the teachings of Clausewitz in that they maintained that war was a political means, peace was only a step towards war, and that conflict is inevitable. The Soviet Union was in no hurry to attack any country, but the state did engage in other types of warfare, such as political, economical, and psychological. The United States formed the Counter-Intelligence Agency as a means to resist the communist state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The rest of the ... ...ed force was put together as a show of more than just observers. Forces were only dispatched if the host country approved them, and although they were authorized to carry arms there were strict rules that had to be followed. The UNEF could only use the weapons for self-defense, force could not be used to carry out their mission of observation, and they were not allowed to interfere with the countries administration. The UNEF would be expected to govern all of the United Nations actions after it’s establishment and for the most part has done so. Although the United Nation’s peacekeeping methods have not ended all threats to every country on the global front, the methods are a step in the right direction to a solution that provides every land with a peaceful resolution. WORKS CITED Brodie, Bernard and Fawn. From Crossbow to H-Bomb. (Bloomington, Indiana:Indiana University, 1973). Chap 9-11 Keegan, John. Mask of Command. (New York, New York: Viking Penguin, 1988). Conclusion Preston, Richard A., Alex Roland, and Sydney F. Wise. Men In Arms: A History of Warfare and its interrelationships With Western Society. (Belmont, California:Wadsworth/ Thomson Learning, 2001). Chap 19-22

Economic progress in Russia in the years 1981-1982 Essay

Despite frequent changes in policy, Russian and Soviet governments were spectacularly unsuccessful in securing sustained economic progress in the years 1881-1982’. Assess the validity of this statement. Between 1981 and 1982, Russia underwent huge changes, particularly the in economy. Russian history is well known for its frequent changes in policy as the country faced revolutions, changes in regime, changes in leadership and not to mention its involvement in various conflicts. As a result, Russia’s economic policy was subject to major change apart from three key areas, industry, agriculture and the tertiary sector. These three areas of the economy remained a constant in its ever changing climate; however, many historians still argue that Russia’s economy was unsuccessful and poorly managed despite its frequent change in policy. Thus begs the question, ‘To what extent is this true?’ The Tsarist regime, for many Russians, was a period of economic instability as agriculture was seen as a secondary concern. Growth rate was not structured and growth rate fell considerably between the late 1890’s and 1905.[1] Meanwhile, other economies expanded leaving Russia struggling to catch up and some historians see agriculture as a reason for Russia’s economic decline. For example, Carol. S. Leonard argued that Russia’s grain production per capita GDP was lagged far behind that of America in 1913.[2] This argument shows how agriculture in Tsarist Russia wasn’t dealt with effectively and as a result, the economy suffered. On the other hand, some historians have pointed out that agriculture in Russia during the late Tsarist years were not so destructive. One argument maintains that actually, Russia’s agriculture grew and developed quite substantially pre- revolution. For example; from 1890 to 1913, cereal production per capita increased by 35%[3]. Although this evidence is hard to ignore, it is also difficult to turn a blind eye to the contrasting evidence which suggests that agriculture suffered under the late Tsarist regime and consequently, affected the economy as a whole. For example: â€Å"There was very little investment in agriculture in Imperial Russia and this lead to small yields and economic volatility when prices rose and fell†¦lack of investment in agriculture frequently caused grain prices to rise which caused famines†[4] Overall, although agriculture grew slightly during the Tsarist regime, ultimately it suffered greatly as did the Russian people. Looking at agriculture alone, Russia’s economy looked bleak however; industry had slightly more success during this time so perhaps the economy was not so bad after all. S J Lee puts forward a simple statement: â€Å"The periods of most rapid growth were in the reign of Nicholas II (1894-1917) as a result of the economic reforms of Sergei Witte (1892-1903)†[5]. This is easy to see, when one considers that in 1914, Russia produced 35 million tons of coal, ranking Russia fifth amongst the main producers.[6] Building on Lee’s argument, there seems to be a lot of evidence pointing to Sergei Witte as the main reason for Russia’s industrial boom. Upon taking office, Witte raised massive amounts of capital by securing a loan from France and raising taxes and tariffs and interest rates.[7] However, it is the development of Russian railways which Witte is perhaps most remembered for. Under his guidance the railway network grew from around thirty one thousand km to around fifty three km worth of track.[8] With Witte at the helm, Russia’s industry continued to develop with growth rates comparing well next to those of the United States and Germany. Witte has often been credited with modernizing Russia to such a great extent that its industrial boom continued long after he left his post as Finance Minister in 1903. For example, in 1913, Russia’s steel production stood at 4.9 million metric tons next to France’s 4.7 million, with coal and iron not far behind.[9] On the other hand, Witte’s industrialization policies were not always so successful. For example, between 1890 and 1899, Russia’s industrial growth stood at 8.0% whereas between 1900-06, it reduced to 1.4%[10]. His aims of modernizing came with a heavy cost and it was consumers who had to pay the price. Taxes were raised but only for the lower classes, indeed the wealthier classes were spared from taxation although their money was needed for private capital. Tariffs also caused problems as, although they protected Russian industry, they added to the cost of living.[11] Whatsmore, although some historians have credited Witte’s decision to seek loans from foreign investors, some remain critical. This is because the interest added to the loans had to be paid in a secure medium meaning, in order to pay off their debts, Russia was forced to export grain regularly, including during the famine of 1891.[12] Overall, although Witte made huge strides in modernizing the Russian economy, he was not entirely faultless. Industry picked up, but there were still issues and it was the common man who had to pay. The economy still suffered, although, arguably, not as much as it would have done without Witte. However, the tertiary sector also contributed to the economy. Although some historians critique Russia’s dependence of Western investors, these ties had corresponding benefits in the shape of trade. [13] Business also boomed within Russia with eight large banks emerging in 1899 which owned more than half the total bank capital. This provided free access for foreign capital, controlling important branches of the Russian economy, including the fuel and metallurgical industries. [14] Moreover, according to Robert Service, domestic industrialists and banks were thriving too.[15] This argument can be supported by the growth in towns and cities between 1897 and 1914. For example; the population in St Petersburg grew from 1’300 thousand (1987) to 2’100 thousand (1914)[16]. This shows that the economic growth had a positive impact on society and the country was doing well under the Tsarist regime. However, although to the naked eye Russia seemed to be doing well, their growth wasn’t so great. Compared to the other Great powers of the period, Russia was lagging far behind. Between 1894 and 1913, Austria-Hungary had a 79% increase in national income whereas Russia was lagging far behind with only a 50% increase[17]. This clearly demonstrates that Russia’s overall situation was not so great and actually, Russian people did suffer. When Lenin came to power in 1917, he brought with him a change in regime and economic policy including the introduction of war communism. War communism aimed to socialize the economy through state involvement. Rural areas were subjected to grain requisition which was forcibly removed by the military.[18] This inevitably was unpopular and caused much suffering and peasants who stored their crops were often wrongfully prosecuted. It was not just agriculture which suffered. Factories were nationalized by November 1920 and were geared towards war production.[19] Additionally, private trade was banned and rationing was introduced on consumer goods including food and clothing. War communism was, effectively a self destructive policy. Grain requisitioning meant more than three million people died of starvation by late 1922.[20] Moreover, money lost its value and people got by through a system of barter. Inflation shot up and multiplied 1917 costs by four million in 1922. Additionally, in comparison to the growth in city population during the Tsarist regime, people fled the cities. For example; in December 1920 the population in Petrograd fell by 57.5%[21] Lenin knew that it was time for a change. War communism caused more harm then good so Lenin came up with an alternative, the ‘New Economic Policy’ (NEP). Peasants were allowed to sell grain for profit and they paid tax on what they produced rather than giving it up[22]. Things also changed industrially and in the tertiary sector. Businessmen could own small or medium sized businesses however large firms were still state owned.[23] The NEP basically gave the people of Russia freedom and Lenin hoped that it would boost economic growth as well. However, in 1924, Lenin died and Stalin came to power. Stalin also brought new ideas and his own ways of modernizing the economy. In November 1927, Stalin introduced his policies of industrialisation and collectivisation with the aim of modernising the economy. They were supported by a series of five year plans, the first (1928-32) aimed to improve living standards and the second (1933-37) and third (1938-41) aimed to highlight and thus, amend, Russia’s weaknesses[24]. Industrialisation was relatively successful as by the late 1930’s many workers conditions had improved and they had acquired better paid jobs and unemployment was almost non-existent. Accounts from the time support this view: â€Å"Good progress was made†¦4’500 new factories, plants, mines and power stations were commissioned, three times as many as the first Five-Year period’[25]. On the other hand, industrialisation was harsh and lateness for work often led to employees getting the sack. Many prisoners also paid the price by working on the grand engineering projects and working in appalling and dangerous conditions. For example; around 100’000 workers died building the Belmor Canal[26]. Collectivisation was ultimately unsuccessful and peasants were in a worse position than ever before. The concept of sharing farms and thus, sharing salary meant there wasn’t enough money to go around and crop production fell too. For example: â€Å"†¦Grain shortages, combined with continued forced procurements, led to rural famine†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [27] However, some people benefitted from collectivisation such as Bertha Malnick: â€Å"We have more than 600 hectares†¦our farmers have built 70 new houses for themselves during the last few years†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [28]. However, it is reasonable to conclude overall that collectivisation was unsuccessful given the various sources which provide figures of those who died or badly suffered during Stalin’s reign. Stalin died in 1953 and Khrushchev took over. Khrushchev focused on DeStalinisation, distancing the USSR as far away from Stalin as possible. Khrushchev was keen to adopt a different economic policy with the aim of building on the country’s previous economic growth and amending its weaknesses and one way he did this was by abandoning the five year plans and starting a new, seven year plan (1959-65) which aimed to take advantage of newly discovered mineral resources and fit in with industry[29]. Khrushchev pumped a lot of money into agriculture and overall 40% of investment was put into the neglected eastern regions of the USSR[30]. However, the seven year plan had similar flaws to the previous five year plans such as mistakes in resource distribution. Living standards got worse, the opposite to what Khrushchev had hoped to achieve. For example; only five in one thousand citizens owned a car and in 1963, the USSR was forced to import grain from the capitalist west to compensate shortages.[31] There were successes during this time such as the rise in foreign trade however this can’t compensate for the huge failures experienced during this time. Khrushchev made an honest attempt to improve the economy however his plans backfired and once again the country was left to clean up an economic mess. Eventually, Khrushchev was removed from power and in his place came Brezhnev who did little to change the economy. The era of Brezhnev has often been described as ‘a period of economic stagnation’ but some historians believe that this is not fair. Like Khrushchev, Brezhnev wanted to focus on improving agriculture and living standards in Russia. Historians Gwyneth Hughes and Simon Welfare support this view saying: â€Å"†¦After the terror of Stalin’s reign and the chaos of Khrushchev’s, the Soviet Union was in for a period of stability, and that meant everyone kept their job and their perks for life.†[32] Brezhnev allowed farmers to work on state own plots which motivated them to produce as much as possible in order to sell the surplus[33]. This, in theory, should have been beneficial and shows that Brezhnev was trying to improve the economy through new methods however, he was not so lucky. In 1975, the USSR suffered another poor harvest meaning Brezhnev had to increase foreign exports to keep everyone fed. This was just another disaster in Russia but Brezhnev did little to help. His aim to improve agriculture and living standards meant he neglected industry and production rates continued to rapidly fall[34]. However, arguably his biggest flaw was his inability to change the already ridged economy. Brezhnev had new ideas but couldn’t fight the system and by the end of his reign, Russia had made little improvement. Historian Dmitri Volkognov best sums up the Brezhnev period saying: â€Å"If Lenin and Stalin, and to some extent even Khrushchev, were able to enliven the moribund ideology of Communism, it was quite beyond Brezhnev†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [35]. In conclusion, between 1881 and 1982, Russia experienced much hardship especially surrounding the economy. After analyzing this one hundred year period it is hard to deny that the statement ‘Despite frequent changes in policy, Russian and Soviet governments were spectacularly unsuccessful in securing sustained economic progress in the years 1881-1992’. The economy under the Tsarist regime had its faults and during and after the 1917 revolution, it was widely believed that the country’s economic situation would improve. However, from Lenin to Stalin and Khrushchev to Brezhnev, it seemed that no leader was able to sustain a long-lasting and successful economic policy. The economy grew as quickly as it declined and it has taken many years to make any significant progress since. Therefore, this statement is valid. ________________ [1] Heinemann Advanced History: The Modernisation of Russia 1856-1985 [2] Agricultural Productivity Growth in Russia 1861-1913. From Inertia to Ferment by Carol. S. Leonard [3] The Penguin History of Modern Russia by Robert Service [4] www.historymadefun.co.uk/Tsarism [5] Overview from Russia and the USSR: Autocracy and Dictatorship (questions and answers in History) by Stephen. J. Lee [6] Stephen J Lee [7] http://www.slideshare.net/russeltarr/tsar-nicholas-ii-and-industry [8] The Industrialisation of Russia by M. Falkus [9] http://www.portalus.ru/modules/english_russia [10] M. Falkus [11] A2 History OCR: A Russia and its Rulers 1855-1964 [12] A2 History OCR [13] S. J Lee [14] A History of the USSR [15] Penguin History of Modern Russia [16] M. Falkus [17] The Making of the Revolution, 1881-1905 [18] From Years of Russia and the USSR, 1851-1991 by Evans and Jenkins [19] Evans and Jenkins [20] The Russian Revolutions 1914-1924 [21] Evans and Jenkins [22] The USSR, Germany and the USA between the wars [23] Russia and the USSR 1905-1941 [24] The USSR, Germany and Russia between the wars [25] A Soviet view of the second five year plan from History of the USSR by Y. Kukushkin [26] Stalin and the Soviet Economy [27] European History 1848-1945 by T.A Morris [28] Everyday Life in Russia by Bertha Malnick [29] AQA A2 History Triumph and Collapse: Russia and the USSR 1941-1991 by John Laver & Sally Waller [30] Russia 1855- 1964 Flagship History by D. Murray and T. Morris [31] The Soviet Economy 1917-80 by S J Lee [32] Red Empire. The Forbidden History of the USSR by G. Hughes and S. Welfare [33] www.ibguides.com/history/notes.ccom [34] Years of Russia and the USSR, 1851-1991 [35] The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Empire by D.Volkognov